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Lake Charlevoix Watershed Project - Phase 1
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Preserving Water Quality for Today and Tomorrow
The project came about in 1998, when a number of concerned agency members, representatives of smaller lake & stream protection groups and citizens at large got together with the aim of developing a watershed management plan. The Charlevoix Conservation District in partnership with Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council applied for an EPA Section 319 grant to conduct a comprehensive inventory of the watershed. In June 1999 the grant was received through the Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) to start the planning process. The initial phase of the project, from June 1999 through March 2001, involved conducting a comprehensive inventory to identify existing sources of nonpoint source pollution and potential threats to water quality. The information collected from the resource and pollution inventories was used to develop recommended actions to reduce pollution to Lake Charlevoix and its tributaries. Project partners prioritized the recommendations, submitted grant applications for implementation funding, and are now carrying out phase 2 of the Lake Charlevoix Watershed Project.
Project Partners include: Antrim County; Antrim County Road Commission; Antrim Conservation District; Charlevoix Land Conservancy; Charlevoix County Road Commission; Charlevoix County Planning Commission; Charlevoix County Board of Commissioners; City of Boyne City; City of Charlevoix; City of East Jordan; Conservation Resource Alliance; Friends of the Boyne River; Friends of the Jordan River Watershed; Friends of Stover Creek; Grand Traverse Regional Land Conservancy; Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians; Lake Charlevoix Association; Little Traverse Bay Band of Odawa Indians; Little Traverse Conservancy; MSU Extension; Michigan Department of Environmental Quality; Michigan Department of Natural Resources; Natural Resources Conservation Service; Northwest Michigan Council of Governments; Northwest Michigan Community Health Agency; Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council.
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Priority Area
Review of Nonpoint Source Pollution Inventories
Stormwater Inventory
Shoreline Pollution Inventory
Lakeshore Erosion Inventory
Streambank Erosion Inventory
Road/Stream Crossing Inventory
Agricultural Inventory
Recreational Impact Assessment
Land Protection
Forestry
Zoning
Build-Out Analysis Study
Land Use/Cover Inventory
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Priority Area
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The priority area is that portion of the watershed which is most sensitive to environmental impacts and which has the greatest likelihood to affect water quality and aquatic habitat. United States Geologic Survey Division (USGS) topographic maps were used as a base for delineating the priority area. Supplemental information was used to identify sensitive areas. Other sources used included, USDA Soil Surveys, Groundwater Education in Michigan (GEM) ground water studies, the Farrand map of surficial geology, and a Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council survey of shoreline wetlands
The priority area for Lake Charlevoix includes the following:
1. Areas within 1000 feet of the following features:
A. Lake Charlevoix
B. Other inland lakes in the watershed
C. Tributary streams (including intermittent drainages)
D. Contiguous wetlands.(For the Lake Charlevoix Watershed, a contiguous wetland is defined as those within 1000 feet of Lake Charlevoix, or within 500 feet of streams or other lakes within the watershed)
E. Urban areas which drain to surface waters, typically via storm sewers.
2. Areas of steep slopes contiguous with any priority perimeter described above. Regarding water resources, the definition of a steep slope seems to range widely in the literature (from 8 to 25%). For this priority area determination, a 10% slope (or 1:10 ratio, or 6 degrees) or greater is recommended.
3. Areas of ground water recharge.
The nonpoint source pollution inventories focused on the priority area.
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Review of Nonpoint Source Pollution Inventories
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The inventories conducted to document nonpoint source pollution included field data collecting inventories to identify current sources and causes of pollution as well as potential sources. The following are summaries of the inventories conducted and their results.
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Stormwater Inventory
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Stormwater, also called urban runoff, is the water which flows across the land surface during rainfall or snowmelt. Impervious surfaces (streets, roofs, sidewalks, etc.) generate much more stormwater runoff than natural, forested, or even agricultural land uses.
Lake Charlevoix has three relatively large urban areas on its shorelines--East Jordan, Boyne City and Charlevoix. A portion of all these cities have paved streets with curbs, gutters, and subsurface drainage pipes called storm sewers. The main purpose of these storm sewers (some of which were installed many decades ago) is to prevent flooding and water damage. Unfortunately, substances (such as bacteria from pet and animal wastes, fertilizer, oil and grease, sediment, heavy metals, salt, etc.) which find their way onto the streets and sidewalks are likely to be washed into Lake Charlevoix or tributary streams by rainfall or snowmelt. A multitude of studies from around the nation and the world, have documented that urban stormwater is a serious source of pollution.
As part of the Lake Charlevoix Watershed Project, Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council staff conducted an inventory and assessment of the storm sewer systems for each of the three cities. This consisted of identifying the land uses (e.g., commercial, residential) within the city boundaries, reviewing maps of storm sewers provided by each city, delineating different drainage areas, identifying locations of stormwater inlets and outlets, and estimating pollutant loading using models developed during nationwide studies. No water sampling and testing was conducted. However, water quality studies by the Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council have documented that the pollution and water quality impacts of storm sewer effluent from other Northern Michigan communities is similar to the predictive model.
The results indicate that the storm sewers are contributing a significant amount of pollution to Lake Charlevoix. All of the municipalities have expressed interest in participating in efforts to reduce impacts.
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Shoreline Pollution Inventory
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A shoreline survey to identify locations of nutrient pollution (using an algae called Cladophora as an indicator), bottom sediment type, and shoreline development characteristics was performed by the Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council during the summer of 2000.
Cladophora is a branched, filamentous, green algae that occurs naturally in small amounts in Northern Michigan Lakes, mostly on rocky shorelines. The nutrient requirements for Cladophora to achieve large, dense growths are greater than the nutrient availability in lakes with high water quality, such as Lake Charlevoix. Therefore, the presence of Cladophora can indicate locations where relatively high concentrations of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, are entering a lake. Sources of these nutrients can be due to natural conditions, however, the majority of Cladophora growths can be traced to cultural sources (such as lawn fertilization, malfunctioning septic systems, poor agricultural practices, soil erosion, and wetland destruction). These nutrients can contribute to an overall decline in lake water quality. Additionally, malfunctioning septic systems pose a potential health risk due to bacterial and viral contamination.
This was the fourth shoreline algal survey performed on Lake Charlevoix since 1980. Periodic repetition of shoreline algal surveys are important for identifying chronic problem sites as well as recent occurrences. They are also valuable for determining long-term trends of nearshore nutrient inputs associated with land use changes, and for assessing the success of remedial actions.
Approximately 1,653 property parcels were identified. The number is approximate because exact property boundaries and recent lot splits were not always evident. Of these, approximately 1,338 were developed (81%). This represents an increase of 93, and compares to an approximate development rate of 77% in 1996 (the date of the last survey).
In 2000, 133 significant Cladophora growths were identified. This is a 24% decrease since 1996. It is possible that the drastically lower lake levels have something to do with the findings (Lake Charlevoix's water level is controlled by the level of Lake Michigan through the Pine River Channel).
Most of the Cladophora growths were in the light category (56%), 38% were more-or-less medium, and only 6% were classified as heavy growths. There were 24% fewer growths of Cladophora than in 1996 (when 175 Cladophora growths were noted), and the growths were lighter in nature. It is possible that the lower number is due to the extremely low water in recent years. In addition, most of the survey was conducted at a later date than was ideal, so some of the Cladophora growths may have been diminished by warm water.
Sandy bottom substrate (generally unsuitable for Cladophora growths) was present in front of 52% of the parcels. However, many lots in areas of sandy bottoms had rock rip-rap placed for erosion control, which allows for the growth of Cladophora if the water is high enough. The remainder of the shoreline was predominately rocky (27%), or a mixture of rock and sand (20%). Mucky or mucky-sand bottom types were only present on about 1% of the parcels.
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Lakeshore Erosion Inventory
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Lakeshores and streambanks are areas of dynamic energy. The powerful forces of waves, currents, and ice move soil particles toward, away from, and along the shoreline.
Streams are continually down-cutting into their valley, carrying sediments downstream particle by particle. The current moves from side to side, undercutting banks and causing the stream channel to meander.
The ice of frozen lakes can expand shoreward with a force of many tons per square foot, moving most obstacles in its path (including shoreline soil). Masses of ice put in motion by winds or currents can scour the banks of lakes and streams.
In a lake, the strength of erosive forces depend on its size, the size and direction of waves and currents, ice characteristics, water depth near shore, and the shape and composition of the shoreline.
Erosion and the transport and deposition of sediments is a natural process along shorelines. Typically, natural erosional processes proceed very slowly, and the plants and animals that live along the shoreline can adjust to these slow changes, maintaining a stable, healthy, productive ecosystem. When some catastrophic natural or human disturbance causes this equilibrium to be upset, accelerated erosion can result. Examples of natural disturbances include large trees uprooted by a windstorm, or a flood resulting from a torrential rainstorm. Human disturbances include vegetation removal, dredging or filling, or construction on or near the shoreline.
Erosion and its resulting sediment pollution has many negative impacts. In an aquatic environment sediment pollution: degrades aquatic and nearshore land habitats, killing aquatic organisms and negatively impacting birds and animals which depend on aquatic habitats; causes warming (which is most serious in cold water trout streams); reduces water clarity and light penetration; and changes bottom substrate which reduces channel capacities that can increase flooding.
Surveys were conducted on lakeshore and streambanks (discussed below) to assess sediment pollution from erosion. The entire shoreline of Lake Charlevoix was surveyed for erosion problems by the Lake Charlevoix Association. Many parcels appreared to have had some actions in the past to control shoreline erosion. Approximately 20% of the parcels surveyed had some erosion-related concerns, typically either steep eroding banks, ineffective past erosion control strategies, or creation of artificial beaches. Eight severe sites were identified in Eveline township, nine moderate sites were identified in Eveline, Evangeline and South Arm townships. Many other minor sites were also documented.
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Streambank Erosion Inventory
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Lake Charlevoix's two largest tributaries, the Jordan and Boyne Rivers, are good quality trout streams. They both have been impacted by streambank erosion. Numerous streambank erosion inventories and restoration work have been done on the Jordan River, coordinated by the Antrim Conservation District and the Friends of the Jordan River Watershed. However, very little attention has been given to the Boyne River. Conservation Resource Alliance and the Friends of the Boyne River conducted a streambank erosion inventory. Data was collected on each streambank erosion site on its size, cause, and severity. Four priority sites were identified on the Boyne River.
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Road/Stream Crossing Inventory
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The road/stream crossing inventory was coordinated by the Conservation Resource Alliance. The Conservation Resource Alliance with support from the Frey Foundation for their River Care Program conducted the inventory for the Boyne River subwatershed. They also provided training and coordinated the inventory for the remaining subwatersheds. The Charlevoix Conservation District entered all of the data into an Access database and compiled the final report.
The purpose of the inventory was to comprehensively identify and document all of the road crossing sites on the tributaries in the Lake Charlevoix Watershed.
Potential road/stream crossings were identified using a variety of map sources and field exploration. Each crossing that appreared to have regular flow connected to Lake Charlevoix was inventoried. With the exception of private drives, all vehicle access roads were included. All potential sites were investigated. In some instances, no crossing was present, or there appeared to be no significant flow (and therefore no significant pollutant contribution) during any time of the year. These locations were not identified as numbered crossings and do not appear in the inventory.
Each site was visited to assess potential impacts and problems. Data collected at the crossings included detailed information about the location, road characteristics (width, shoulder, drainage, surface); culvert condition; and erosion and runoff problems. Basic stream characteristics such as width, depth, current, and substrate were also recorded. Field data was collected by both resource professionals and trained volunteers.
In order to prioritize road/stream crossings for improvement, a severity ranking index was used. The severity ranking system used is identical to that used on a number of previous road/stream inventories completed by Conservation Resource Alliance and other agencies throughout Michigan. Three classifications are used in the severity ranking, severe (30 points or more); moderate (15-29 points); and minor (under 15 points).
The inventory information is organized by subwatershed (Jordan River, Boyne River, Horton Creek, and remaining Lake Charlevoix sites). Volume 1 contains maps showing key information for each crossing. Volume 2 contains the field data forms with site sketches, site severity scoring worksheets, and the cost estimating worksheets used to record all inventory information.
A total of 212 sites were inventoried (19 were classified as severe, 140 as moderate, and 53 as minor).
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Agricultural Inventory
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Nonpoint source pollution problems from agricultural areas have been well documented. Agricultural activities in Charlevoix and Antrim Counties are predominately small farms and are quite diverse. Agricultural land use has been declining in both counties due to a number of social and economic factors. Family farms are not being continued by the younger generation. Many farms are being sold for development as the demand for scenic lands for home sites increases. For the Lake Charlevoix Watershed Project the location and any associated nonpoint source pollution problems were documented for agricultural producers in the watershed.
The Charlevoix Conservation District conducted an inventory of the agricultural activities within the Lake Charlevoix Watershed. A data sheet was completed for each site that described location and type of farm, distance to nearest tributary, and any obvious nonpoint source pollution problems. Aerial photos, plat maps, topographic maps, along with field checking were used to identify area farms. A ranking of nonpoint source pollution problems of severe, moderate, and minor were given to each site. A total of 41 farms were inventoried (3 severe, 15 moderate, and 23 minor).
The most common problems identified at the farm sites were livestock in streams and lack of animal waste storage areas. The herd sizes at the farms were very low. Many of the farms were identified as "hobby" farms. There were quite a few that appeared to have horses only and were labeled as "hobby horse farms".
The three severe sites are all in Charlevoix County and are in need of the following best management practices to reduce nonpoint source pollution:
Site A: streambank restoration (erosion from livestock), livestock exclusion fencing and cattle crossing, watering sources, animal waste management, and pasture/grazing management.
Site B: Exclusion fencing, alternate water source, and buffer strips.
Site C: Animal waste facility and pasture management including filter strips to reduce runoff.
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Recreational Impact Assessment
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Recreational impacts were assessed on both the Jordan River and on Lake Charlevoix. The Jordan River is well-known throughout Michigan as an excellent trout stream and a great canoeing river. The Jordan River Pathway, which crosses the Jordan and follows its banks in many locations, is a popular hiking spot. The expansive waters of Lake Charlevoix are popular for all types of boating by both shoreline residents as well as by transient visitors utilizing the many public access sites. These activities are important for fostering an appreciation of natural resources and supporting the local economy that depends on nature-based tourism. However, recreational activities can be a source of nonpoint source pollution. An inventory to assess the impacts of canoeing and canoe access sites, fishing and angler access sites, hiking on the Jordan River Pathway (by Friends of the Jordan); and boating on Lake Charlevoix (by the Lake Charlevoix Association) was conducted.
Canoeing: The majority of canoes (or other vessels like kayaks or tubes) using the Jordan River are rentals from two local liveries. Numbers of rentals annually were unavailable, but hundreds of canoes float the river on some days. The primary launch site is Graves Crossing. Canoe navigation upstream of this point is difficult. A terraced, gravel launching platform was constructed at this location relatively recently, and has functioned well to protect the streambank. Other popular put-in/take-out spots include the Old State Road crossing, a Michigan Department of Natural Resources (M.DNR) public access site just downstream from Websters Bridge, a M.DNR access site at the lamprey weir, and a M.DNR access site at Rogers Bridge. All of these sites have some problems related to canoe access (or other types of recreational activity).
At Old State Road, a large double culvert unofficially known as "the tubes" creates some standing waves. Canoeists will occasionally take-out just downstream of the tubes and then portage to above the road to float through them again. This is also a popular mid-way stopping point, and the streambanks on the east side of the river downstream of the road are heavily trampled (including on adjancent private property). There is also quite a bit of litter at the site.
Access structures of different types have been constructed at the Websters, Weir, and Rogers Bridge sites. However, due to heavy use, some bank trampling and erosion is still occurring. In addition, surface runoff from the parking areas causes erosion and sedimentation of the river.
In addition to these "official" access sites, there are three sites between roads which are popular take-outs for picnicking, bathroom breaks, etc. Two of these are wetlands, and the heavy use is causing severe bank trampling, erosion of organic soils, and widening of the stream channel. A third is a utility pipeline crossing, where steep sandy banks are eroding.
Fishing: In addition to the sites described above, fishing access to the upper part of the river is mostly gained off of a series of popular "pull-over" spots off of the system of unpaved roads throughout the Jordan River Valley. Eighteen access sites, including the M.DNR access sites were inventoried and assessed. Some of these sites are linked to short trails to access the river and had campfire circles with accumulations of trash and litter. Streambank erosion was associated with heavily used sites. Since most of the sites are not official access locations, maintenance is not being performed by any government or organization.
Hiking: The Jordan River Pathway crosses the Jordan River and travels through many wetland areas. After many years of use, the cumulative impact of thousands of hikers has led to resource degradation in sensitive areas of the Pathway. Some of these spots are in need of re-routing or some type of repair.
The section of the Pathway most impacting the water resouces of the Jordan Valley is along a heavily used portion of the trail which traverses the area below Deadman's Hill. There are several places where the Pathway crosses spring-fed seeps or feeder streams in wet, mucky areas that are eroding or washing out.
Another location of the Pathway that is routed through wetlands near the bank of the main stream near the Jordan River Fish Hatchery. There are a few places in that section that are eroding and feeling the impact of Pathway users. In addition, there are a few other minor repairs needed along the trail to reduce erosion and runoff to the Jordan River.
Lake Charlevoix Boat Counts: The Lake Charlevoix Association tabulated the number of boats on Lake Charlevoix and Round Lake in July of 1998 and 1999. Boats were counted early in the morning before there was any significant traffic. Boats and empty trailers were also counted at public access sites. Most of the boats there were power boats and personal watercraft - very few sail or paddle boats were seen at public access sites. Boating is known to cause water quality problems in several ways. Discharges from engines contain toxic hydrocarbons, nutrients, and other pollutants. Prop wash from powerful engines can resuspend bottom sediments (especially in shallow areas with soft bottom sediments) causing turbidity and releasing nutrients and toxins. Large wakes can cause accelerated shoreline erosion, especially in the South Arm of Lake Charlevoix or protected coves or bays. Boat launching is a vector for exotic organisms. Access sites often have shoreline erosion, litter, polluted surface runoff.
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Land Protection
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Because Lake Charlevoix is a high quality resource it is essential to work towards reducing future sources of pollution as well as addressing known sources. Protecting valuable shoreline wetlands and maintaining the ecological integrity of the uplands and wetlands in the priority area are particularly important.
There are three land trusts that work in the Lake Charlevoix Watershed: Little Traverse Conservancy, Grand Traverse Regional Land Conservancy, and Charlevoix County Conservancy. Working together they identified parcels of land which if protected, would help to maintain and/or improve the water quality of lakes and rivers in the Lake Charlevoix Watershed. The criteria used to identify key parcels included:
- Size - over 40 acres in area
- Lands adjacent to protected land such as state land or existing preserves
- Lands containing high value wetlands as inventoried by the Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council
- Land containing at least 1/4 mile of lake, river, or stream frontage.
Maps were produced that identify parcels that meet these criteria. Properties that had three or four of the criteria were classified as priority. Secondary properties included those that were 40 acres or greater and met one other criteria. The maps are to be used as a planning document ONLY. A total of 593 properties were identified as important for watershed management (436 Charlevoix Co., 157 Antrim Co.). A database with information on ownership of the parcels has been developed. The database will be used to contact property owners and inform them of voluntary stewardship efforts for land protection and watershed management.
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Forestry
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Forestlands make up the majority of the Lake Charlevoix Watershed. Unlike other large watersheds in Northern Michigan (e.g., Black & Mullet Lakes) that contain a significant amount of state land, the forestlands in the Lake Charlevoix Watershed are predominately privately owned. The Charlevoix Conservation District conducted an assessment of private forestlands in the watershed. The assessment included site visits with property owners and road-side review.
District staff met with 19 property owners to discuss their forest management plans. These on-site assessments looked at more than 750 acres of private forestlands. A drive-by road survey was also conducted throught the entire watershed. State forest management activities were not inventoried. No adverse impacts from past logging activities were identified in this phase of the assessment. However, the potential for impacts is significant and the recommendations address how to prevent future problems.
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Zoning
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The primary tool used to regulate land use in the Lake Charlevoix Watershed is zoning. Township zoning ordinances within the watershed were reviewed for standards that benefit or harm water quality.
Each township within Charlevoix County contains a zoning ordinance, as do the three cities. The Village of Boyne Falls is the only community within Charlevoix County that does not currently have a zoning ordinance in effect. None of the Antrim County townships that are within the Lake Charlevoix Watershed have zoning ordinances. Resort Township in Emmet County and Elmira Township in Otsego County are both covered by county ordinances. The portion of the Jordan River and its tributaries that are south of Rogers Road in Charlevoix County and into Antrim County are all subject to the Jordan River Natural River Zoning Ordinance. The ordinance, while only covering the land directly adjacent to the rivers and streams, does provide some degree of protection which otherwise does not exist in Antrim County.
The review of each ordinance focused upon the following concerns:
- Setbacks of structures from the waters edge (including septic tanks and tile fields)
- Greenbelts and shoreline protection measures
- Greenbelt restoration requirements
- Maximum lot area coverage
- Open space provisions
- Regulations for flood plains, wetlands and erosion-prone areas
- Property redevelopment regulations for non-conforming uses and buildings
- Sealed floor drains for commercial and industrial properties
- Funneling regulations
- Deck and dock regulations
The review of the ordinances found that most communities do not address all of the issues detailed above. Those that did could use additional information backing up their regulations. The need exists for the development of sound and uniform language that can be included in each zoning ordinance within the watershed that will be effective in insuring that detrimental land uses and the inappropriate development of property is neither allowed nor encouraged by our zoning ordinances. Consistency of language and enforcement of good zoning ordinances across the watershed is also essential.
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Build-Out Analysis Study
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One of the questions that was asked as part of this watershed study was - what does the future hold regarding future development in the watershed? An effective method for answering this question is to do an in-depth build-out analysis and map. A build-out analysis projects what an area will look like if it were completely built-out according to local land use regulations.
To produce a realistic build-out map, a number of factors have to be taken into account. These include past and present development trends, projected population changes, natural features and a community's land use regulations. With this information it is possible to produce a realistic picture of the future if present trends continue.
Unfortunately, developing such a map for the complete watershed was impractical given the size and the number of municipalities within its boundaries. Therefore it was decided to develop a map of one municipality, which would be the most typical of the watershed - Wilson Township. Wilson Township, located in Charlevoix County is 35 square miles in area. Wilson Township contains portions of Lake Charlevoix and Porter Creek. The rate of growth and nature of land use regulations is representative of most of the townships in the watershed.
A computer-based geographic information system (GIS) was used to develop the build-out map. The first step involved identifying areas not well suited for development. Using data from the Soil Survey of Charlevoix County, all hydric (wetland) soils and areas with slopes greater than 25% were outlined. The next step was to outline areas that have already been developed. This was completed using 1983 MIRIS data updated with recent aerial photography. The last step was mapping out the property ownership using data from Charlevoix County Equalization Department. In this step, public lands were also delineated.
A map showing existing conditions is made using the data described above, along with information on prime farmland and prime forestland soils. The build-out map illustrates how this area would likely appear if completely developed per the provisions of the Wilson Township zoning and private road ordinances.
According to the 2000 census, Wilson Township currently has 2,022 residents, up 35% from 1990. There are 852 housing units within the township, a 35% increase from 1990. According to the build-out map, if the township were completely developed there would be an additional 2,764 housing units in the township. Using the current average household size of 2.65 persons the population would increase to 9,346 residents. At current rates of growth the township would be completely built-out within 45 years.
What will be the impact of this pattern of development on the water resouces in Wilson Township? Some of the areas most destined for development are the shoreline areas and river corridors. More roads, new road crossings, and increases in impervious surface will contribute additional runoff to Lake Charlevoix and its tributaries.
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Land Use/Cover Inventory
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The landscape of the Lake Charlevoix Watershed has changed many times. At one point, the entire watershed consisted of forest lands. At the turn of the century, much of the forests were clear cut to provide for the export of lumber. Many acres of harvested land were converted to agricultural use. Over the years the amount of land that could be farmed in an economically profitable manner declined. This acreage declined due to any number of the following reasons:
- eroding of the top soil;
- farming practices which depleted the soils of necessary nutrients;
- elevating transportation costs; and the
- decreasing value of agricultural products.
The Geographic Information Center at Central Michigan University was contracted to develop a current land use/cover inventory for the watershed based upon digital ortho-photos taken during 1997 by the Michigan Consolidated Gas Company. This work consisted of updating a land use cover inventory performed in the early 1980s by the county, that was based upon infrared aerial photos taken in 1979. In addition, a field survey was conducted to confirm land uses in certain locations.
The changes identified in the land use assessment can be attributed in a large part to the development that took place over the past 20 years. In some instances, the difference is not an actual change in the land use or cover, but results from a change in how the cover is classified, or by a change in the minimum unit of measurement. The inventory based upon the 1979 photos did not classify individual home sites, rather areas of residential activity that exceeded five acres in size. The inventory based upon the 1997 photos went as small as one acre sites of residential activity. The number for wetland acreage increased because of a change in what areas were classified as wetlands. For example, cedar swamps and scrub-shrub wetlands were classified as forests, not wetlands, in the 1979 inventory. The inventory was conducted in a manner that allows a direct comparison of the tabular data on a section-by-section basis.
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This page last updated on 2/14/2005.
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